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      "body": "<html> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p>https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmbNpT252Uo6QBhfVBpNJE3SPnjkAWLtZxS4U7sh6vm2nK/image.png&nbsp;</p> <p><strong>Testing tools and technologies for refueling and repairing satellites in orbit won't be the only demonstration taking place aboard the International Space Station during NASA's next Robotic Refueling Mission 3, or RRM3.</strong></p> <p>An advanced, highly compact thermal camera that traces its heritage to one now flying on NASA's Landsat 8 has been mounted in a corner of the RRM3 payload and from that position will image and videotape Earth's surface below once the SpaceX Dragon resupply vehicle delivers the payload to the orbiting outpost in November.While RRM3 demonstrates its specially developed satellite-servicing tools developed by NASA's Satellite Servicing Projects Division, its hitchhiker companion, the Compact Thermal Imager, or CTI, will image and measure fires, ice sheets, glaciers, and snow surface temperatures.CTI will also measure the transfer of water from soil and plants into the atmosphere -- important measurements for understanding plant growth. Many of the conditions that Earth scientists study, including these, are easily detected in the infrared or thermal wavelength bands.</p> <p><strong>Strained-Layer Superlattice Technology Enables CTI</strong></p> <p>CTI's enabling technology is a relatively new photodetector technology known as Strained-Layer Superlattice, or SLS.In addition to being very small, measuring nearly 16 inches long and six inches tall, SLS consumes little power, operates at liquid-nitrogen temperatures, is easily fabricated in a high-technology environment, and is inexpensive 'almost to the point of being disposable,' said Murzy Jhabvala, a detector engineer at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Jhabvala collaborated with his industry partner, the New Hampshire-based QmagiQ, to develop the SLS detector assembly.The detector technology is also quickly and easily customized for different applications, he added. The Goddard Detector Development Laboratory, for example, recently fabricated a 1,024 x 1,024-pixel SLS array and plans to increase its size to 2,048 x 2,048 pixels in the very near future.Another enabling technology that CTI and its SLS detectors will employ is the Goddard-developed SpaceCube 2.0, a powerful hybrid computing system that will control the instrument and process the images and video that it takes while in orbit.The demonstration's goal, Jhabvala said, is to raise SLS's technology-readiness level to nine -- or TRL-9 -- meaning that it has flown in space and has demonstrated that it operates well under the extreme environmental conditions found in space. 'This is a very important technology milestone,' Jhabvala said. 'We needed this mission. When we demonstrate our detector array, multiple copies can be made, assembled, and aligned into focal plane arrays that would allow us to image large swaths of Earth's surface from space in the future.'</p> <p><strong>QWIP Based</strong></p> <p>SLS is based on the Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector, or QWIP, technology that Jhabvala and his government and industry collaborators spent more than two decades refining. The QWIP detectors are now operating on Landsat 8 and will be flying on the upcoming Landsat 9 Thermal Infrared Sensor Instrument, which Goddard scientists built to monitor the ebb and flow of land-surface levels and the health of vegetation -- data that western states use to monitor water consumption.Like its QWIP predecessor, SLS is a large-format detector. The arrays are fabricated on a semiconductor wafer. The wafer's surface consists of hundreds of alternating, very thin layers of differing materials that are epitaxially grown and tuned to absorb infrared photons and convert them into electrons -- the fundamental particles that carry an electric current. Only light with a specific energy, or wavelength, can release the electrons. A read-out chip directly mated to the array then converts the electrons to a voltage that a computer uses to recreate an image of the infrared source. The CTI can also capture video from its orbit nearly 249 miles above Earth's surface.</p> <p><strong>Ten Times More Sensitive</strong></p> <p>Compared with its QWIP predecessor, SLS detectors are 10 times more sensitive and operate over a broader infrared spectral range and at substantially warmer temperatures -- 70K (about -334 degrees Fahrenheit) for the SLS array compared with 42K (about -384 degrees Fahrenheit) for the QWIP array.</p> <p>The increase in operating temperature will have multiple positive effects on future missions, Jhabvala said.Infrared radiation is sensed as heat. Therefore, detectors designed to measure infrared wavelengths must be cooled to prevent heat generated inside an instrument or spacecraft from contaminating the measurements of the object being observed. That's why engineers use cryocoolers and other devices to keep the detector arrays and other critical instrument components as cold as necessary.Because Jhabvala and his team have created an array that can operate at warmer temperatures, its cooling system is smaller and consumes less power. In the future, these attributes will lead to smaller satellites, increased longevity, shorter build cycles, and a lower cost, Jhabvala said.</p> </html>",
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      "body": "<html>https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmbWmNGmQT38KVQzpJ55a9HMe5E7i2VppXZiuhMxvSc1B2/image.png <p><strong>&nbsp;Modern communication systems often employ optical fibers to carry signals across or between devices. The integrated optics in these devices combine more than one function into a single circuit. However, signal transmission requires long optical fibers, which makes it difficult to miniaturize the device. Instead of long optical fibers, scientists have started testing planar waveguides.&nbsp;</strong></p> <p><br></p> <p>&nbsp;In the <em>Journal of Applied Physics</em>, from AIP Publishing, investigators from the University of Leeds report on a laser-assisted study of a type of glass that shows promise as a material for broadband planar waveguide amplifiers. This material is made by doping a type of glass made from zinc, sodium and tellurium with the rare earth element erbium. Erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers have garnered attention because electronic transition for erbium occurs at the same wavelength, 1.5 microns, that is a standard in telecommunications technologies.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;While a planar waveguide guides light along a single geometric plane, the investigators used a technique known as ultrafast laser plasma doping that utilizes ultrafast lasers to incorporate erbium ions as thin films in a silica substrate. The researchers aimed a high-intensity laser at the surface of the erbium-doped glass, which blasted a tiny crater and produced a thin film from the plume of ejected material.&nbsp;</p> <p>Their measurements during the film formation process focused on the ablation threshold of the glass. This quantity describes the minimum energy required to separate atoms or molecules by intense laser irradiation. The investigators determined how the ablation threshold in their system was affected by the radius of the laser beam, the number of laser pulses and the concentration of the erbium ion dopant.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;They found that the ablation threshold does not depend on the low doping concentration of erbium ions needed to engineer any device. Although this study focused exclusively on erbium ions as the dopant, 'This result could be applicable to other dielectric materials processed with ultrafast lasers,' said Thomas Mann, an author on the paper.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;The investigators also looked at the shape and characteristics of the tiny craters blasted into the glass. Understanding the morphology of craters produced during the fabrication process is important for controlling properties such as the porosity, the surface area, and the ability of the material to scatter or absorb light.'These properties are important for engineering other dielectric materials for surface area-demanding applications in photocatalysis, sensing, fuel and solar cells, and light extraction in LEDs,' Mann said. The next phase in their research will involve more precise engineering of thin films and waveguides for amplifiers, sensors and other devices.&nbsp;</p> </html>",
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      "body": "<html>https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmbWmNGmQT38KVQzpJ55a9HMe5E7i2VppXZiuhMxvSc1B2/image.png <p><strong>&nbsp;Modern communication systems often employ optical fibers to carry signals across or between devices. The integrated optics in these devices combine more than one function into a single circuit. However, signal transmission requires long optical fibers, which makes it difficult to miniaturize the device. Instead of long optical fibers, scientists have started testing planar waveguides.&nbsp;</strong></p> <p><br></p> <p>&nbsp;In the <em>Journal of Applied Physics</em>, from AIP Publishing, investigators from the University of Leeds report on a laser-assisted study of a type of glass that shows promise as a material for broadband planar waveguide amplifiers. This material is made by doping a type of glass made from zinc, sodium and tellurium with the rare earth element erbium. Erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers have garnered attention because electronic transition for erbium occurs at the same wavelength, 1.5 microns, that is a standard in telecommunications technologies.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;While a planar waveguide guides light along a single geometric plane, the investigators used a technique known as ultrafast laser plasma doping that utilizes ultrafast lasers to incorporate erbium ions as thin films in a silica substrate. The researchers aimed a high-intensity laser at the surface of the erbium-doped glass, which blasted a tiny crater and produced a thin film from the plume of ejected material.&nbsp;</p> <p>Their measurements during the film formation process focused on the ablation threshold of the glass. This quantity describes the minimum energy required to separate atoms or molecules by intense laser irradiation. The investigators determined how the ablation threshold in their system was affected by the radius of the laser beam, the number of laser pulses and the concentration of the erbium ion dopant.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;They found that the ablation threshold does not depend on the low doping concentration of erbium ions needed to engineer any device. Although this study focused exclusively on erbium ions as the dopant, 'This result could be applicable to other dielectric materials processed with ultrafast lasers,' said Thomas Mann, an author on the paper.&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;The investigators also looked at the shape and characteristics of the tiny craters blasted into the glass. Understanding the morphology of craters produced during the fabrication process is important for controlling properties such as the porosity, the surface area, and the ability of the material to scatter or absorb light.'These properties are important for engineering other dielectric materials for surface area-demanding applications in photocatalysis, sensing, fuel and solar cells, and light extraction in LEDs,' Mann said. The next phase in their research will involve more precise engineering of thin films and waveguides for amplifiers, sensors and other devices.&nbsp;</p> </html>",
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      "body": "<html>https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmRkXFomkS8aYs6ncE8fAc42tAbuWAqcjztLTuXspg4bcJ/image.png <p><strong>The nucleus of thorium-229 possesses a property that is unique among all known nuclides: It should be possible to excite it with ultraviolet light. To date, little has been known about the low-energy state of the Th-229 nucleus that is responsible for this property. Together with their colleagues from Munich and Mainz, researchers at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) have now performed the first-ever measurements -- using optical methods -- of some important properties of this nuclear state such as the shape of its charge distribution. In this way, a laser excitation of the atomic nucleus can be monitored, thus allowing an optical nuclear clock to be realized that 'ticks' more precisely than present-day atomic clocks. The scientists have reported their results in the current issue of Nature.</strong></p> <p><br></p> <p>As early as around <strong>15 years ago</strong>, Ekkehard Peik and Christian Tamm were developing the concept of a new atomic clock that had unique properties at PTB in Braunschweig: Instead of a transition frequency between two states in the electron shell being used as the pulse generator of their clock, as is the case in all atomic clocks in use today, they envisaged using a transition frequency in the nucleus. Because the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are packed more densely than the electrons in the atomic shell by several orders of magnitude, they react less sensitively to outside disturbances that can change their transition frequencies -- thus providing good conditions for a high-precision clock.</p> <p><br></p> <p>However, the frequencies of nuclear transitions are also much higher than those of shell transitions (in the X-ray range); for this reason, they are unusable for atomic clocks, which, to date, have been based exclusively on microwaves or laser light. The sole known exception, and the foundation of PTB's proposal, is the nucleus of thorium-229. This nucleus possesses a quasi-stable, isomeric nuclear state at exceptionally low excitation energy. Thus, a transition exists between the ground state and this isomer, which is in the frequency range of ultraviolet light, and thus within the reach of laser technology that is similar to that used in present-day optical atomic clocks.</p> <p><br></p> <p>More than ten research groups around the world are currently working on projects concerning the feasibility of a thorium-229 nuclear clock. In experimental terms, this issue has proven to be extremely difficult. For this reason, no success has been achieved thus far in observing the nuclear transition using optical methods, as knowledge of the precise excitation energy of the isomer has been only approximate. 'As desired for the clock, the resonance of the transition is extremely sharp and can only be observed if the frequency of the laser light precisely matches the energy difference of both states. The problem therefore resembles the proverbial search for a needle in a haystack,' as Dr. Peik succinctly puts it.</p> <p><br></p> <p>In 2016, Dr. Peik's cooperation partners at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) in Munich reported on their first breakthrough in Nature: For the first time, they were able to prove the nuclear transition within the thorium-229 nucleus, even though the methods they used were very different from those used for an atomic clock.</p> <p><br></p>https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmSWaRPSKGDkQQL1kZV7AbkpV7BFaHSTE3EGjUtEDGQHNP/image.png <p>This collaborative research project -- which, in addition to PTB and LMU scientists, also includes scientists from Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, the Helmholtz Institute Mainz and GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung Darmstadt -- has now taken another decisive step: For the first time, it has been possible for basic properties such as the size and shape of the charge distribution to be measured in the excited state of the Th-229 nucleus. To this end, the Th-229 nuclei were not excited from their ground state (as will happen in the future in the clock); instead, in a device developed by LMU, they were obtained in the excited state from the alpha decay of uranium-233, slowed and stored as Th2+ ions in an ion trap. A uranium-233 source suitable for this purpose was provided by the groups in Mainz and Darmstadt. By means of laser systems developed at PTB for the spectroscopy of these ions, it was possible to measure transition frequencies in the electron shell accurately. Because these frequencies are directly influenced by the nuclear properties, they can be used to obtain information on these properties. To date, models based solely on theory have not been able to predict how the structure of the Th-229 nucleus will behave during this unusually low-energy transition. Furthermore, because the structure of the electron shell is easier to measure using spectroscopy, it has become possible to use it to demonstrate a laser excitation of the nucleus.</p> <p><br></p> <p>However, even if this does not mean that the search has been completed for the optical resonant frequency of the Th-229 nucleus (the 'needle in the haystack'), we now know what the needle actually looks like, bringing us a significant step closer to the optical atomic clock. (es/ptb)</p> </html>",
      "title": "En route to the optical nuclear clock",
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