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      "title": "Data Multiplexing Schemes in Telecommunication Systems",
      "body": "# Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)<h1>\n\nIn TDMA systems, network resources are the time slots available for the\ndata transmission. Each time slot is assigned to a different user; or multiple time\nslots can be assigned to a single user or multiple time slots can be assigned to\nmultiple users depending on the amount of voice or data traffic transmitted. GSM\ntelecommunication standard, which is 2G network, uses TDMA technique for\ncommunication. \n\n# Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) <h1>\n\nIn FDMA systems, the whole spectrum is divided into multiple frequency\nslots to create the frequency chunks. Network resources are the frequency\nchunks available for the data transmission. Each user is assigned a different\nfrequency chunk to receive and transmit data\n\n# Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) <h1>\n\nIn CDMA systems, network resources are the number of unique codes\nassigned to each user or subscriber. Each subscriber uses assigned code for\ndata transmission and reception. CDMA 1x and CDMA 1x Advanced technologies\nuse the same CDMA technique for communication and these standards are used\nas 2G technology in North America. 3G communication standard which uses the\nCDMA is called WCDMA or UMTS. UMTS standard is used as 3G\ncommunication technology in all over the world.\n\n# Orthogonal Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) <h1>\n\nThis scheme uses time and frequency resources to transmit and receive\ndata. In other word, this multiplexing technique combines both TDMA and FDMA\nmultiplexing schemes to transmit data to users. Each user in the network is\nassigned specific time and frequency resource grid for communication. This data\ntransmission technique is used in 4G/LTE, LTE advanced and 5G\ntelecommunication systems.",
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      "body": "![spectrum.jpeg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmcqijLsEJ7RmkRWwRzZbfejAppSSvw22oM3vEszMVDC84/spectrum.jpeg) \n  \nFrequency Spectrum is the blood of any wireless communication network since it enables communication between users. As all resources in the nature, spectrum resources are also limited. In this post, frequency spectrum or spectrum or bandwidth are used interchangeably to refer to the resource that network operators use. In US and the rest of the World, spectrum is held by\ntelecommunication service operators who pay billions of dollars for the acquisition of it. Governments and/or private spectrum holders sell the spectrum through auctions. Each operator who wants to buy the spectrum bids for it. The rule is that the winner is the highest bidder. Auction might really increase the dollar amount paid for the spectrum since some operators might bid for specific spectrum bands desperately.\n\nMost of the available spectrum has been auctioned for 3G and 4G networks and almost no spectrum is available today to auction. Increasing demand for the mobile data has motivated service operators to find alternative ways to increase their spectrum holdings. One way to increase the amount of spectrum is to rent some fixed and/or dynamic amount of spectrum from other\nservice providers. This is an important first step to create the spectrum cloud. This cloud is used by service providers based on demand. In other words, if, as service provider, I need more spectrum to provide more capacity at some locations and/or for certain duration of time, I should able to rent the spectrum from the spectrum cloud by paying for it. !",
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      "title": "4G NETWORK COMPONENTS",
      "body": "4G Stands For Fourth Generation, And It Is The Standard That Promises High Bit Rates, And Low End To End Network Delay.\n\n3GPP is the standardization organization that develops and manages the different releases of the 4G standard, and 4G is called as Long Term Evolution (LTE) in the 3GPP documents, which is the official name for 4G.\n\n4G/LTE network consists of specific network components;\n\n1- eNodeB: This is the evolved version of the NodeB (3G) base station, and it is responsible for resource management, scheduling, link adaptation, mobility management, bearer management, error checking, modulation, and demodulation.\n\n2- MME: This is the Mobility Management Entity. MME is responsible for initial user terminal context setup, authentication, initial QoS template management, and location management.\n\n3- HSS: Home Subscriber Server is responsible for keeping the subscriber profile information, initial QoS templates for initial bearer setup, and location information.\n\n4- SGW: Serving Gateway is handling the user data transmission between eNodeB and PGW. It is responsible to initiate the connection with PGW during the initial UE attachment process. SGW is the mobility anchor for UE.\n\n5- PGW: Packet gateway assigns IP address to the UE, and responsible for bearer establishment, and QoS enforcement with the help of PCRF. PGW receives the QoS information for each bearer from PCRF and enforces these QoS rules in order to make sure that every traffic is getting its fair share of the network resources.\n\n6- PCRF: Policy Control Rules Function, is the QoS database for users. When user connects to the network, specific QoS rules have to be applied to the user traffic (bearer), and PCRF communicates required QoS profiles with PGW. There are 2 ways of these communication, either PGW might request this information (pull), and PCFR might push the QoS profile to the PGW.\n\nI mentioned bearer concept in the text. Think of bearer as a data pipe, that has specific attributes for successful delivery of particular traffic type. If you are watching YouTube video, LTE network will establish a high QoS bearer (dedicated bearer) to you so that you can watch your video without any interruption in service quality levels.",
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      "title": "WHAT IS 4G? WHAT IS LTE?",
      "body": "![4G-LTE copy.png](https://steemitimages.com/DQmUsJt8rHo8oezQ9zUsiXLR8TRjjeKFRb7YsNd5afsrfzM/4G-LTE%20copy.png)\n# You Might Be Hearing A Lot About 4G. Let Me Explain What It Is In Two Paragraphs<h1>\n\n4G stands for fourth generation of the wireless technology that we have been using so far. Its purpose is to speed up the wireless network, and deliver better service quality users, that is us. Basically, as a user you will be watching YouTube videos without any interruption, downloading the web pages faster, posting FB status updates faster, and tweeting seamlessly without any delay. The standardization bodies define the term Long Term Evolution (LTE) for 4G networks. So, LTE is more technical term, and 4G is more kind of marketing term, but they both refer to the same technology or the network.\n\n4G is more advanced than 3G networks, and it is all IP based. 4G network does not have any circuit switched component in the network, and all traffic is transmitted through IP packets. 4G network uses less number of network elements which reduces the end to end delay in the network, and this satisfies the requirement for better VoIP and Video packet delivery.  On the RF side, 4G networks use advanced antenna techniques such as MIMO, which stands for Multiple Input Multiple Output, that basically means that base station or/and user terminal uses more than one antenna to transmit or/and receive the information over the air. 4G networks also use various beamforming techniques in order to increase the coverage and to reduce the interference in the network. There are many more improvements than the ones I mentioned above, but I do not want this blog to be too technical. I just wanted to give you an overview. \n\n*To be continued*",
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      "title": "Self Organizing Networks",
      "body": "# What is Self Organizing Network? <h1>\n\nWe can call the concept of Self Organizing Networks as Artificial Intelligence in telecommunication networks. Self adaptability and self organization have been famous topics since the beginning of humanity because organism which can adapt to its current environment survives.\n\nThis concept has not been changed since then. Networks, computers, devices which can adapt to unique properties, or functions or features of its operating environment (user base) survive or will survive. What does Survive mean in this context? It means these systems will serve its users in a much better way and will acquire more users.\n\n\nIf we go back to telecommunication networks, I want to talk about two important key performance indicators;1- Capacity and 2- Coverage. Capacity means the speed which bits delivered to a user in telecommunication network. It also represents the total number of users that can connect to the network simultaneously. Coverage means the total area where users (cell phones) can connect to the network, or it is the total area where our phones receive sufficient amount of signal power so that they can connect to the network.\n\n\nAll that being said, in 2G and 3G telecommunication networks, capacity and coverage were almost fixed. That is, network was designed to meet particular capacity and coverage targets. Once network was designed, it stayed as it was for a long time. Service providers deployed more base stations to provide more capacity and coverage if there was enough user demand. However, there was not any dynamic network capacity or coverage adjustment.\n\n\nIn 4G networks, there is a new concept introduced, called self organizing networks. This basically means that base stations can change their coverage and capacity based on the changing needs/demand in the network. If demand increases, base station increases its capacity. If more capacity is needed at a particular location, base station shrinks its coverage to serve those specific locations with more capacity.\n\n# How is it done?<h1>\n\n4G base stations collect data about the current coverage and capacity performance. Based on the past performance of the network, they also predict future performance with some small error. So, base stations know the expected coverage and capacity levels at a certain time in the future, and adjust their antenna power, direction, antenna tilt, and other available resources to achieve the predicted coverage and capacity levels. (Certain optimization algorithms are used for this purpose; but this is not the topic of this writing)\n\nThere is one very important critical point that we need to pay attention here. As we know, networks in general, and 4G networks specifically are designed to cover a large geographical area. There are hundreds and sometimes thousands of base stations to cover a particular market (geographical area). So, once the network is designed, if group of base stations start changing their settings based on the demanded coverage and capacity, this will create problem for other base stations nearby (interference). Therefore, all base stations serving particular area need to act together to improve the performance of the overall network. For this to happen, base stations need to exchange information with each other (through their X2 interface) about their current load levels, predicted capacity & coverage levels in the future, etc. Once all base stations have this information available, each base station finds the optimum parameter settings to meet user demand, and at the same time to keep the negative impact on the overall network performance very low. Thus, network starts optimizing itself to serve its users in a much better way.\nI expect that self organization will be implemented in much better way in 5G networks that it was implemented in 4G networks.\n\n*To be continued*",
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