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      "body": "Source: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSL-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109&lpg=PA109&dq=The+most+important+branch+of+in+vitro+culture+is+cloning,+also+called+micropropagation+or+vegetative+propagation.+And+the+aim+of+micropropagation+is+to+create+safely+possibilities+to+clone+higher+plants+disease-free,+faster+and+less+expensive+than+in+vivo&source=bl&ots=uzXw5sNAfd&sig=4DfZYKcmb9gE66Ne1zeBqxHUe2o&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiq47WAzsjWAhWkKMAKHXxZA4oQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=The%20most%20important%20branch%20of%20in%20vitro%20culture%20is%20cloning%2C%20also%20called%20micropropagation%20or%20vegetative%20propagation.%20And%20the%20aim%20of%20micropropagation%20is%20to%20create%20safely%20possibilities%20to%20clone%20higher%20plants%20disease-free%2C%20faster%20and%20less%20expensive%20than%20in%20vivo&f=false\n\nNot indicating that the content you copy/paste is not your original work could be seen as [plagiarism. ](http://www.plagiarism.org/plagiarism-101/what-is-plagiarism/)\n\nSome tips to share content and add value:\n- Use a few sentences from your source in “quotes.” Use HTML tags or Markdown. \n- Linking to your source\n- Include your own original thoughts and ideas on what you have shared.\n\nRepeated plagiarized posts are considered spam. Spam is discouraged by the community, and may result in action from the [cheetah bot](https://steemit.com/steemitabuse/@cheetah/cheetah-bot-explained).\n\nCreative Commons: If you are posting content under a Creative Commons license, please attribute and link according to the specific license. If you are posting content under CC0 or Public Domain please consider noting that at the end of your post. \n\nIf you are actually the original author, please do reply to let us know!\n\nThank You!",
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      "body": "Sources: \n\nhttps://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-0348-8700-7_2\n\nhttps://books.google.fr/books?id=1LWmOrVK940C&pg=PA579&lpg=PA579&dq=There+are+a+number+of+genetic+transformation+methods+developed+for+the+production+of+transgenic+plants.+Genetic+transformation+methods+in+plants+can+be+divided+mainly+into+two+classes-vector-mediated+gene+transfer+and+direct+gene+transfer+or+vector-less+gene+transfer.&source=bl&ots=0xcYlWRdW6&sig=yzQXS7UkV6yydnJ4vKKbJ6igEew&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMnIvQw8jWAhXFKcAKHWnPB1IQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q&f=false\n\nNot indicating that the content you copy/paste is not your original work could be seen as [plagiarism. ](http://www.plagiarism.org/plagiarism-101/what-is-plagiarism/)\n\nSome tips to share content and add value:\n- Use a few sentences from your source in “quotes.” Use HTML tags or Markdown. \n- Linking to your source\n- Include your own original thoughts and ideas on what you have shared.\n\nRepeated plagiarized posts are considered spam. Spam is discouraged by the community, and may result in action from the [cheetah bot](https://steemit.com/steemitabuse/@cheetah/cheetah-bot-explained).\n\nCreative Commons: If you are posting content under a Creative Commons license, please attribute and link according to the specific license. If you are posting content under CC0 or Public Domain please consider noting that at the end of your post. \n\nIf you are actually the original author, please do reply to let us know!\n\nThank You!",
      "json_metadata": "{\"tags\":[\"science\"],\"links\":[\"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-0348-8700-7_2\",\"https://books.google.fr/books?id=1LWmOrVK940C&pg=PA579&lpg=PA579&dq=There+are+a+number+of+genetic+transformation+methods+developed+for+the+production+of+transgenic+plants.+Genetic+transformation+methods+in+plants+can+be+divided+mainly+into+two+classes-vector-mediated+gene+transfer+and+direct+gene+transfer+or+vector-less+gene+transfer.&source=bl&ots=0xcYlWRdW6&sig=yzQXS7UkV6yydnJ4vKKbJ6igEew&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMnIvQw8jWAhXFKcAKHWnPB1IQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q&f=false\",\"http://www.plagiarism.org/plagiarism-101/what-is-plagiarism/\",\"https://steemit.com/steemitabuse/@cheetah/cheetah-bot-explained\"],\"app\":\"steemit/0.1\"}",
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      "author": "suesa",
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      "body": "![tech.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmSuQDgqk7LdUWjypLGiMPiEdQ1U6u5mVCgTj9VKP59gy1/tech.jpg)\n\n\nTransformation genetics  are based on the introduction of DNA into totipotent  plant cells, followed by the regeneration of such cells into whole fertile plants. Transformation is a complex process and can occur by many different routes.\n\n\nTransformation genetics    technology in plants raises issues of global importance, approached and resolved in very different ways, that often mix local, national and global perspectives. In India for example, attitudes to Genetic manipulation have been shaped in part by concerns about the influence of foreign multinationals, as   opposed to home-grown     technologies. India's Government supports local research into high-protein potatoes, high-yield  mustard and drought- and salt-tolerant rice. But it has banned the import of maize or soya flour from US aid agencies, after several Indian environmental organisations protested against   the genetic  manipulation  content  of such products . In the US, there  is  a generally  high  level  of  acceptance  and utilisation of GM foods and there is no requirement to label products derived from transgenic crops. Clearly, many factors outside science influence decision making, and these may well differ between countries. We will explore some of these issues, but initially, it is useful to have an overview of the position of GM crops globally.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n![maps.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTqKgs5qx2qyBRu6a5gxVMSWq4sA44Xnk3F1xiWwev8pY/maps.jpg)\n\n\n![tabl1.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmabuAMHR4qZVnCY8UcATn67nnxppVJoUWMogr5zD6iEE5/tabl1.jpg)\n\n\n\nThere are a number of genetic transformation methods developed for the production of transgenic plants. Genetic transformation methods in plants can be divided mainly into two classes—vector-mediated gene transfer and direct gene transfer or vector-less gene transfer. \n\n\n\nIn this article we'll  talk  just about the Vector-Mediated or Indirect Gene Transfer, this method is appeared in 1970s with  microbiologists Mary-Dell Chilton , Eugene W. Nester, and Milton P. Gordon, the elucidation of the mechanism of crown gall formation by _Agrobacterium tumefaciens_ .The discovery that virulent strains of _A. tumefaciens_ carried a large plasmid that conferred the ability to induce crown galls and that part of the plasmid (the T-DNA) was transferred to the plant genome of crown gall cells provided a natural gene transfer mechanism that could be exploited for plant transformation.\n\n\n![cycl.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmZEPGD8NCoTRJ8NKXtTjcusTZb3VFRZLUKSEK9oZ9Mxuw/cycl.jpg)\n\n\n\nThe general strategy would therefore be to design a ‘recombinant’ plasmid containing the desired gene that codes for a desired trait that is to be transferred to the plant. The gene may be for resistance to herbicides, for example, or the ability, to synthesize a specific protein of commercial interest, such as an antibody or hormone. Next, the recombinant plasmid is transferred into the agrobacterium. Finally, the bacteria containing these modified Ti plasmids (without t-DNA) are inoculated into the host plant and these bacteria go about their business of inserting plasmid DNA fragments into the host plant genome. The first genetically engineered food now available in supermarkets, the ‘Flavor-Savr’ tomato, owes its existence to gene transfer by agrobacterium. Plant tissue such as terminal meristems as terminal meristems, or leaf discs, or cultured plant cells are co-cultivated or incubated with the a. tumefaciens having the recombinant plasmids, allowing the bacterium to infect the tissue or cells. The infected tissues are allowed to grow on shoot regeneration medium. During this time the transfer of genes into the plant genome takes place.\n\n![stps.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmQUV5krYmZEWUU4uFsXro1Fgzx5eANWqReMj1AyP1mDF6/stps.jpg)\n\nAfter transformation, cells are allowed to proliferate on selective medium to increase the amount of callus and kill nontransformed cells. Trans-genie plants can then be regenerated by two methods: somatic embryogenesis or organogenesis. Somatic embryogenesis involves the formation of embryogenic callus direct from somatic tissues. This recapitulates the entire developmental pathway, including the embryonic stage. Organogenesis involves the direct growth of shoots from the callus of transformed tissues or in some cases direct growth from transformed explants without a callus stage. The shoots can be transferred to rooting medium and regenerated into plants or grafted onto seedling rootstock and propagated.\n\n![zate1.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmPXXTQ3h8vUA9MrcudxaNGzmhjTMAHJ5HYU184VMGS2aG/zate1.jpg)\n\nIn some species, only one regenerative process is possible under the conditions used for trans-formation.For example, transgenic rice and maize plants are generated pre-dominantly by somatic embryogenesis, and transgenic cassava plants can be generated only by the organogenesis of shoots. In other species, such as banana and soybean, both processes are possible and the method of choice depends on the starting material and culture conditions and which process produces transgenic plants the most rapidly and with the greatest efficiency. An alternative to these processes is the development of transgenic plants by true embryogenesis from transformed seeds, zygotes, or gametes that undergo diploidization. \n\n![stg.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmP1ubBHFcLRMVw35kAg8xJSCbFwKetGj48JLNfmNXCvVp/stg.jpg)\n\nThe completely developed transgenic plants can be transferred to soil after proper acclimatization or hardening. The transgenic plants can be evaluated for the presence of the foreign gene and its proper expression can be analyzed by different sets of molecular techniques such as Southern hybridization, Northern hybridization, PCR, and also by enzyme assays. Once the transgenic plant is completely evaluated for its possible biological activities and its impact on environment and other ethical and safety issues, it can be recommended for release to farmers or companies.\n![zat.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmdQMmFz6XdASb2tPsWZUJ2qQc2NbJP3Kj7Y1ep2PHBmTi/zat.jpg)\n\n\nGenetically modified plants are now being commercialised in several countries as regulatory authorities consider that the balance of risk versus benefit is beneficial. However, numerous questions remain unanswered, especially the impact of these plants when used over large areas and under a range of variable environmental conditions. Some issues need to be re-evaluated [1,2]. Risk/safety analysis, as well as prospects of transgenic crops depend on the scale which is to be considered. Extrapolation of methods, and laboratory and greenhouse results, to large-scale farmers' fields, may provide useful preliminary data, but is not a sound approach to the study of the consequences of the commercial release of transgenic crops. Risk/safety analysis involves hazard identification and risk assessment. Hazards are scale-dependent and need to be tested on an appropriate scale. Change to a region's flora, for instance, is not a matter for a greenhouse test, but must be studied at the regional level. Risks associated with identified hazards depend on local conditions, e.g. non-proportionality of pollen spread with source size, regional variation of crop management practices, interaction between crops, genotype variability of populations of wild relatives, etc. A main concern is to estimate the value of predictability for agriculture and environment of results  collected  on different scales.",
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      "body": "![man.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmQ8fePoxv53AMjRkK1cEWU1th2VETcEVrrH5NsFzcniGg/man.jpg)\n\n\nMany girls prefer a certain type of man, not necessarilly the most handsome, often without knowing why, if a girl is shown phtographs of men who are very different, but all acceptable, she will pick out serveral who seem especially attractive to her.\n\nAnother girl may see nothing interesting in them at all. One would have to delve into the buried memories of childhood to explain these selective attraction.",
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      "body": "<><>  ![fleur.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmV4MkhzMP5XTFvi5pfAPPh3HqMc4ZeV8r3TgNn3yuzE1e/fleur.jpg)<> <> \n\n\n__In vitro culture__ of  plants  is defined as the culture on nutrient media under __sterile conditions__ of plants, embryos, organs, explants, tissues, cells and protoplasts. \n\nThe most important branch of in vitro culture is __cloning__, also called __micropropagation__ or __vegetative propagation.__  And the aim of micropropagation is to create safely possibilities to clone higher plants disease-free, __faster and less expensive than in vivo.__\n\n\n\n\n![steps.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmc6SjR9YsKNdTAMGJXmGGLehoarAvu9iRSh2YxMxmxc5f/steps.jpg)\nschematics steps of in vitro culture of potatoes\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIn vitro cloning also offers possibilities to clone plants in cases where it is impossible in vivo. The advantage of this technology is that is enables the production of __disease--free plants__  and thereby also __facilitates the so-called phytosanitary transport.__\n\n![nnnnn.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmVREGqemo2P223KBAccsDUpzXNYitRwT57fDi2H8jiXj3/nnnnn.jpg)\n\nIn addition, the multiplication of plants by __tissue culture - micropropagation__, offers many advantages over conventional methods for __the multiplication of large numbers of plants__  __independent of climatic conditions__ and with __conservation of space and time__.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFurthermore in vitro derivea plants are frequently more vigorous and of superior quality, often justifying the term \"elite\" plants in comparison to those produced by in vivo methods.\n\n![tow.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTTrrGPYKEgS3iUUmMik1c3FNxG5kZqebMHGwZQePeNtU/tow.jpg)\n\n\n\nThe multiplication of plants by __tissue cultures__ centres around the formation and multiplication of shoot meristems.\nTwo main pathways are involved, one is the regeneration of plants from existing meristems - axillary and apical meristems which results in the production of clonally stable plantlets.\n\nThe other is by the induction of de novo meristems, adventitious meristems and somatic embryos in cultured organs/tissues/ callus. \n\n![calus.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQma9BynsyVTc7zBuN1P9TKgeWmgw4pcLBbFfTf5SA9q67b/calus.jpg)\n\n\nWhilst this de novo pathway is much more productive it often results in progenys which are not true to type and in the production of somaclonal variants, this phenomenon is, however, being exploited in the continual search for new improved plant varieties.\n\nThe transfer of in vitro-cultured plantlets to in vivo conditions is one of the most critical stages of the micropropagation process.\n\nTody __plant tissue culture technology__ has introduced a new phase into plant multiplication and is being increasingly utilized in plant breeding, and it became 21st century agriculture, mor than that __plant tissue culture technology__  it's  one of the important keys of science that can make the human being able to colonize the moon.\n\n\n\n![mars.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTtiG2u7B4i9iqCxh565eVf4bucgf5G7KdUCRYokA2eJQ/mars.jpg)",
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